Page 233 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

200 n GRANDPAReNTS RAISING GRANDCHILDReN

Given the leading antecedents to being social isolation typically reported by grand-
raised by grandparents (e.g., child mal- parents raising grandchildren is significant,
G treatment, abandonment, death or incarcer- given that social support is a mediator of psy-
ation), it is not surprising that researchers chological distress in grandparents raising
have found increased behavior problems in grandchildren (Kelley et al., 2000).
children raised by grandparents when com- Although research has documented that
pared with national normative groups (Smith grandparents raising grandchildren are at
& Palmieri, 2007). Other research suggests increased risk for compromised health and
that they may be at increased risk for devel- increased psychological distress, few studies
opmental delays, often related to prenatal related to interventions with this population
substance exposure (Whitley & Kelley, 2008). are available. The majority of intervention lit-
Undoubtedly, the increased demands of par- erature is limited to descriptions of programs
enting children with behavioral problems that lack outcome data or intervention stud-
and special needs contribute to the increased ies with very small sample sizes (Dannison
distress levels found in custodial grandpar- & Smith, 2003; edwards & Sweeney, 2007;
ents. In one study, researchers found that Kolomer, McCallion & Overeynder, 2003;
grandparents raising special needs chil- Kopera-Frye, Wiscott, & Begovic, 2003).
dren reported poorer mental health than Furthermore, the majority of the interven-
those raising children without special needs tions are limited to support groups and edu-
(Brown & Boyce-Mathis, 2000). Other stud- cational programs (Cox, 2002; edwards &
ies have found that grandparents raising Sweeney, 2007; Hayslip, 2003; Kolomer et al.,
grandchildren with behavior problems expe- 2003; Kopera-Frye et al., 2003).
rienced more distress than grandparents Several health-related intervention stud-
raising children without behavior problems ies are available in the literature. Researchers
(Hayslip, emick, Henderson, & elias, 2002; conducted a pilot study to explore the impact
Pruchno & McKenney, 2002). of a group educational program on nutri-
By assuming full-time parenting respon- tion and physical activity knowledge of
sibilities, grandparents are often faced with African American custodial grandparents
increased financial pressures at or near a (Kicklighter et al., 2007). Results indicated an
time in their lives when income is dramat- increase in knowledge among participants;
ically decreased. This decrease in income however, changes in behavior were not mea-
is often related to retirement and living on sured. Another study assessed the efficacy
fixed incomes or from having to leave full- of an interdisciplinary, home-based inter-
time employment because of the demands vention involving nurses and social workers,
of full-time parenting, especially when the with the goal of improving the well-being of
grandchildren have special needs. Although custodial grandmothers (Kelley et al., 2007).
some families may be entitled to Temporary The researchers found improvements in the
Assistance to Needy Families cash benefits, areas of psychological distress, resources,
the monthly payments are typically nomi- social support, and coping, but not physical
nal and insufficient for adequately housing, health.
clothing, and feeding children. In a study involving 529 predominantly
Findings from several studies portray low-income custodial, African American
grandparent caregivers as socially isolated grandmothers, researchers implemented
from peers because of the demands of raising a home-based intervention designed to
children at a point in their lives when they improve the well-being of grandmother
would otherwise have few childcare respon- caregivers (Kelley et al., 2010). The inter-
sibilities (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000; vention involved home visits by registered
Kelley & Damato, 1995; Musil, 1998). The nurses and social workers as well as other