Page 36 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

ACTioN SCiENCE n 3

sharing the notion that the inquiry is oriented of practice, whereas theories in use refers to
to change and in solving practical problems theories that are actually used in practice.
through participation of involved people, Theories in use are only inferable from the A
action science differs from participatory actions themselves, and practitioners usually
action research by focusing on the learning are not aware of or not able to articulate their
models that are at the base for human actions theories in use except through careful reflec-
as the locus for producing changes (Argyris & tion and self-dialogue.
Schön, 1989). in action science, changes in Argyris and Schön (1974) and Argyris
human actions are sought by examining and et al. (1985) identified Model 1 theories in
correcting the fundamental mechanisms and use as a type that seals practitioners from
reasons for adhering to certain repertoires of learning and produces routinization and
behaviors that result from a closed-up mode ineffective practice. Humans act in general
of learning. to satisfy the governing variables (to be in
Putnam (1999) suggested that action sci- control, to strive to win, to suppress nega-
ence is based on three philosophical prem- tive feelings, and to act rationally), repre-
ises: (a) human practice involves meaning senting Model 1 theory in use, which often
making, intentionality in action, and norma- result in defensiveness, misunderstanding,
tivity from the perspective of human agency; and self- fulfilling and self-sealing processes
(b) human practice goes on in an interdepen- (Argyris, 1982; Argyris et al., 1985; Argyris &
dent milieu of behavioral norms and insti- Schön, 1996). on the other hand, Model 2
tutional politics; and (c) the epistemology theory in use encompasses principles of
of practice calls for the engagement of prac- valid information, free and informed choice
titioners in generating knowledge. Action in action, and internal commitment. Model
science thus is a method and philosophy for 1 theory in use represents single-loop learn-
improving practice and generating knowl- ing, whereas Model 2 theory in use aligns
edge. Argyris (1980) further suggested that with double-loop learning. Thus, action sci-
action science is an interventionist approach ence aims to change people from single-loop
in which three prerequisites must be estab- learning of Model 1 to double-loop learning
lished for the research to ensue: (a) a creation of Model 2 through the processes of reflec-
of normative models of rare universes that tion and learning engaging both practitio-
are free of defensive routines, (b) a theory ners and researchers for the transformation
of intervention that can move practitioners (Argyris, 1993, 2002; Argyris et al., 1985;
and organizations from the present to a new Argyris & Schön, 1996). Single-loop learning
desirable universe, and (c) a theory of instruc- results in change in actions without revising
tion that can be used to teach new skills and the governing variables, whereas double-
create new culture. loop learning begins with changing the gov-
Action science holds that actions in erning variables, followed by change in the
professional practice are based on practitio- actions.
ners’ theories of action. Theories of action Knowledge of practitioners’ theories
are learned and organized as repertoires of in use and espoused theories provides a
concepts, schemata, and propositions and descriptive understanding about the pat-
are the basis on which practitioners’ behav- terns of inconsistencies between theories in
ioral worlds are created in specific situations use and espoused theories recalled in actual
of practice. Argyris et al. (1985) identified practice. Through action science, practitio-
espoused theories and theories in use as two ners engaged in Model 2 theories in use pro-
types of theories of action. Espoused theories duce practice knowledge that informs their
of action are the rationale expressed by practi- approach to practice without routinization
tioners as guiding their actions in a situation or the self-sealing mode. in addition, action