Page 139 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

106 n DATA CoLLECTion METhoDS

Self-report methods are indispensable as patients with dementia), certain types of
a means of collecting data on human beings, behavior (e.g., patients’ sleep–wake behav-
D but they are susceptible to errors of reporting, ior), or evolving processes (nurse–patient
including a variety of response biases. These interactions). however, judgmental errors
methods are also not appropriate with cer- and other biases can undermine the quality
tain populations (e.g., young children) or on of observational data.
topics about which participants themselves Data for nursing studies may also be
cannot be expected to bear witness (e.g., their derived from biophysiological measures,
level of agitation or confusion). which include both in vivo measurements
The second major mode of data collec- (those performed within or on living organ-
tion is through observation. observational isms) and in vitro measurements (those per-
methods are techniques for collecting data formed outside the organism’s body, such as
through the direct observation of people’s blood tests). Biophysiological measures are
behavior, communications, characteristics, quantitative indicators of clinically relevant
and activities. Such observations can be attributes that require specialized technical
made by observers either directly through instruments and equipment. Qualitative clin-
their senses or with the aid of observational ical data—for example, descriptions of skin
equipment such as videotape cameras. pallor—are gathered not through technical
Structured observational methods dic- instruments but rather through observations
tate what specific things the observer should or self-reports. Biophysiological measures
observe, and how to record the observations. have the advantage of being objective, accu-
in this approach, observers often use check- rate, and precise and are typically not subject
lists to record the appearance, frequency, or to many biases.
duration of preselected behaviors, events, Although most nursing research
or characteristics. They may also use rating involves the collection of new data through
scales to measure dimensions such as the self-report, observation, or biophysiological
intensity of observed behavior. in structured instrumentation, some research involves the
observation, observers must be carefully analysis of preexisting data. Clinical records
trained to identify categories of behavior or (e.g., hospital records, nursing charts) can be
actions, and the accuracy of their judgments important data sources. A variety of other
needs to be assessed using interobserver reli- types of documents (e.g., letters, newspaper
ability checks. articles) and artifacts (e.g., photographs) also
Researchers who collect qualitative can be used as data sources, particularly for
observational data do so with a minimum of qualitative researchers (e.g., ethnographers,
researcher-imposed structure and interfer- historical researchers). When a data set—
ence with those being observed. People are either qualitative or quantitative—is created
observed, typically in social settings, engag- by a researcher for a study, it may provide a
ing in naturalistic behavior. Researchers rich and inexpensive source of secondary data
make detailed narrative notes about their for further analysis by other researchers.
observations. A special type of unstruc- in developing their data collection plans,
tured observation is referred to as participant nurse researchers are increasingly triangulat-
observation: the researcher gains entry into ing data of various types in creative and pro-
the social group of interest and participates ductive ways. Triangulation has long been an
to varying degrees in its functioning while important tool for qualitative researchers as
gathering the observational data. a means of enhancing the trustworthiness of
observational techniques are an impor- their data. in particular, ethnographers and
tant alternative to self-report techniques, grounded theory researchers frequently com-
especially for certain populations (e.g., bine self-report data from interviews with