Page 190 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

ETHiCS OF RESEARCH n 157

validity of study results, and/or when min- (what should be allocated to one). The latter is
imal or no harm to research participants known as distributive justice. Fairness often
is anticipated. However, other investiga- focuses on selection or omission of research E
tors consider omission of informed consent participants. The guiding principles are that
unethical. participants are selected only on the basis
The second and third ethical principles— of the research requirements and that these
those of nonmaleficence (do no harm) and requirements be ethical. Characteristics of
beneficence (prevent harm and do good)— subject selection such as gender, race, reli-
focus primarily on minimizing risks and gion, and socioeconomic status may present
maximizing benefits. Risks may be psycho- ethical issues of justice as fairness. They also
logical (e.g., anxiety), physiological (e.g., side may present ethical issues of power imbal-
effects of drugs), social (e.g., ostracism), or ances. These imbalances are often explored
economic (e.g., child care costs). To minimize by feminist ethicists.
these risks, investigators assess their nature, Whereas nonmaleficence and benefi-
number, and severity. in addition, organi- cence focus on risks and benefits, the ethi-
zations involved with research mandate cal principle of distributive justice focuses
institutional reviews—often operational- on allocation of them, that is, whether they
ized through institutional review boards— should be allocated equally or according to
to ensure that research being conducted need, merit, contribution, or market demand
is ethical. The overriding ethical principle (Beauchamp & Childress, 2009, chap. 7). For
regarding nonmaleficence in research is this: example, if equal allocation is chosen, inves-
Take the smallest amount of risk possible to tigators may ask research participants to sub-
meet the research purpose. mit to a routine blood test with an equal risk
As with risks, benefits also may be psy- for all (e.g., a painful needle prick) or to com-
chological (e.g., decreased anxiety), physi- plete participation in a study with an equal
ological (e.g., increased muscle relaxation), benefit for all (e.g., a gift of a bookmark).
social (e.g., access to support services), or eco- The ethics of research also focus on one’s
nomic (e.g., financial compensation). Benefits moral character, namely, on who one ought
may help individual study participants, other to be as an investigator. One response is that
individuals, or society. They should be maxi- investigators ought to be persons who aspire
mized to prevent harm or to do good. toward moral excellence in research through
The ethical principles of nonmaleficence possession of virtuous traits such as com-
and beneficence also apply to research with passion, caring, trustworthiness, and integ-
animals. investigators should (a) use ani- rity (Beauchamp & Childress, 2009, chap. 2).
mals for research only when necessary, (b) Compassionate investigators possess aware-
obtain approvals of regulatory agencies and/ ness of the stresses and sufferings of research
or animal-care-and-use committees before participants and do not negate their welfare
research, (c) use the least-sentient animals for sole pursuit of the research. Caring inves-
that serve the research purpose, (d) inflict the tigators possess commitment to research
least amount of harm to the fewest animals, participants through concerned connections
and (e) provide the animals with necessary and responsible relationships with them.
care and protection. Despite these safe- Trustworthy investigators possess moral
guards, some investigators oppose animal reliability, allowing research participants to
research; they claim that harming animals is believe with confidence that investigators
never morally justifiable. will follow through with commitments. High
The fourth ethical principle—that of integrity investigators possess completeness
justice—focuses both on fairness (what one and steadfastness of character in their per-
deserves or is owed) and on distribution sonal and professional lives.