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CHAPTER 4: THE LEADER AS AN INDIVIDUAL 111
approach for viewing subordinates and shaping leaders’ attitudes. Studies explor-
ing the relationship between leader attitudes and leadership success in general
support his idea, although this relationship has not been carefully explored. 27

Social Perception and Attribution Theory

By perception, we mean the process people use to make sense out of their surround- Perception
Perception
the process people use to make
ings by selecting, organizing, and interpreting information. Values and attitudes affect the process people use to make
sense out of the environment
perceptions, and vice versa. For example, a person might have developed the atti- sense out of the environment
by selecting, organizing, and
by selecting, organizing, and
tude that managers are insensitive and arrogant, based on a pattern of perceiving interpreting information
interpreting information
arrogant and insensitive behavior from managers over a period of time. If the
person moves to a new job, this attitude will continue to affect the way he or she
perceives superiors in the new environment, even though managers in the new
workplace might take great pains to understand and respond to employees’ needs.
As another example, a leader who greatly values ambition and career success may
perceive a problem or a subordinate’s mistake as an impediment to her own success,
whereas a leader who values helpfulness and obedience might see it as a chance to
help a subordinate improve or grow.
Because of individual differences in attitudes, personality, values, interests, and
experiences, people often “see” the same thing in different ways. Consider that a
recent survey of nearly 2,000 workers in the United States found that 92 percent of
managers think they are doing an “excellent” or “good” job managing employees,
but only 67 percent of workers agree. As another example, in a survey of fi nance
professionals, 40 percent of women said they perceive that women face a “glass
ceiling” that keeps them from reaching top management levels, whereas only
10 percent of men share that perception. 28

Perceptual Distortions
Of particular concern for leaders are perceptual distortions, errors in perceptual Perceptual distortions
Perceptual distortions
errors in judgment that arise
judgment that arise from inaccuracies in any part of the perceptual process. Some errors in judgment that arise
from inaccuracies in the
types of errors are so common that leaders should become familiar with them. from inaccuracies in the
perceptual process
perceptual process
These include stereotyping, the halo effect, projection, and perceptual defense.
Leaders who recognize these perceptual distortions can better adjust their percep-
tions to more closely match objective reality.
Stereotyping is the tendency to assign an individual to a group or broad category Stereotyping
Stereotyping
the tendency to assign
(e.g., female, black, elderly or male, white, disabled) and then to attribute widely the tendency to assign
an individual to a broad
held generalizations about the group to the individual. Thus, someone meets a an individual to a broad
category and then attribute
category and then attribute
new colleague, sees he is in a wheelchair, assigns him to the category “physically generalizations about the group
generalizations about the group
to the individual
disabled,” and attributes to this colleague generalizations she believes about peo- to the individual
ple with disabilities, which may include a belief that he is less able than other
coworkers. However, the person’s inability to walk should not be seen as indicative
of lesser abilities in other areas. Indeed, the assumption of limitations may not only
offend him, it also prevents the person making the stereotypical judgment from
benefiting from the many ways in which this person can contribute. Stereotyping

prevents people from truly knowing those they classify in this way. In addition,
negative stereotypes prevent talented people from advancing in an organization
and fully contributing their talents to the organization’s success.
The halo effect occurs when the perceiver develops an overall impression of Halo effect
Halo effect
an overall impression of a
a person or situation based on one characteristic, either favorable or unfavor- an overall impression of a
person or situation based on one
able. In other words, a halo blinds the perceiver to other characteristics that person or situation based on one
characteristic, either favorable or
characteristic, either favorable or
should be used in generating a more complete assessment. The halo effect can unfavorable
unfavorable