Page 337 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

304 n MOTHER–INFANT/TODDLER RELATIONSHIPS

published references to objective reality, par- traits that affect the individual’s behavioral
ticipant perspective, and latent patterns are reactions to environmental stimuli (De Pauw
M consistent with the American pragmatist & Mervielde, 2010). Temperamental qual-
philosophical foundation. Therefore, it is ities, such as high-intensity reactions, low
from this perspective that the moral reckon- adaptability to change, or shyness, influ-
ing has been studied. ence children’s abilities to regulate emotions
Moral reckoning explains the process in stressful situations, relate to others, and
that surrounds moral distress, a pervasive adjust to changes in daily routines. Similar
problem that may lead to a number of long- temperamental qualities in the mother are
lasting consequences. Because moral dis- likely to affect her ability to adjust her par-
tress causes harm to nurses, diminishes the enting behaviors to accommodate an unpre-
quality of patient care, and contributes to dictable infant or a defiant 2-year-old (Gross
the nursing shortage, the larger process of & Conrad, 1995; Karreman, de Hass, van
moral reckoning requires continued study. Tuijl, van Aken, & Dekovi, 2010). A poor fit
Strategies to prevent moral distress and mit- between parent and infant/toddler tempera-
igate the long-lasting effects that occur as mental styles has been associated with more
nurses reckon their role in the distressing sit- child behavior problems and increases in
uation are imperative. Further research, now physiological indices of stress (Bridgett et al.,
in process, includes expanding the investi- 2009; Bugental, Olster, & Martorell, 2003).
gation to better understanding the causes However, temperament can be moderated
and consequences of moral reckoning and by the social environment of the mother and
to compare the process among nursing and child (Barry, Kochanska, & Philibert, 2008;
other disciplines. Karreman, de Hass, van Aken, & Dekovic,
2009). Children with a “difficult” temper-
Alvita Nathaniel ament who are reared by mothers who are
responsive and positive in their parenting
techniques are less likely to have behavior
problems when compared with similar chil-
Mother–infant/toddler dren reared in dysfunctional family systems
(Karreman et al., 2009).
relationshiPs Recently researchers have studied the
expression of genes to identify physiologi-
cal mechanisms affecting parents’ sensitiv-
The study of mother–infant/toddler rela- ity to an infant or toddler’s behavioral cues.
tionships centers on knowledge related to Studies suggest that patterns in the genetic
the health and development of the mother– expression of neurotransmitters, chemical
child dyad from birth to 3 years. This focus messengers in the brain, may increase or
of inquiry is necessarily large because the decrease social sensitivity depending on the
mother–child system is an open one, respon- expressed genetic allele and the social envi-
sive to genetic, biological, environmental, ronment of the family (Way & Taylor, 2010).
cognitive, and psychological influences Biological factors can also influence the
(National Research Council and Institute child’s developmental trajectory, making par-
of Medicine, 2000, 2009; National Scientific enting more stressful and altering the quality
Council on the Developing Child, 2004). of the mother–infant/toddler relationship.
The mother–infant/toddler relationship For example, low-birth-weight infants with
is influenced by genetic and constitutional neonatal medical complications are at greater
factors such as the child’s temperament. risk for later developmental difficulties
Temperament is an inborn constellation of (Aarnoudse-Moens, Weisglas-Kuperus, van