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chapter 4 | Questions of Values and Ethics 43 CikguOnline
a supreme being,and technology,for example,is con- commitments they make and the roles they take
sidered a gift that allows health-care personnel to upon themselves. The term deontological comes
maintain the life of a loved one.Other religions,such from the Greek word deon (duty). This theory is
as certain branches of Judaism, focus on free choice attributed to the 18th-century philosopher
or free will, leaving such decisions in the hands of Immanuel Kant (Kant, 1949). Deontological ethics
humankind. Many Jewish leaders believe that if considers the intention of the action, not the con-
genetic testing indicates, for instance, that an infant sequences of the action. In other words, it is the
will be born with a disease such as Tay-Sachs, which individual’s good intentions or goodwill (Kant,
causes severe suffering and ultimately death,an abor- 1949) that determines the worthiness or goodness
tion may be an acceptable option. of the action.
Belief systems often help survivors in making Teleological theories take their norms or rules for
decisions and living with them afterward. So far, behaviors from the consequences of the action.
more questions than answers have emerged from This theory is also called utilitarianism. According
these technological advances. As science explains to this concept, what makes an action right or
more and more previously unexplainable phenom- wrong is its utility, or usefulness. Usefulness is con-
ena, people need beliefs and values to guide their sidered to be the amount of happiness the action
use of this new knowledge. carries.“Right”encompasses actions that have good
outcomes, whereas “wrong” is composed of actions
Morals and Ethics that result in bad outcomes.This theory had its ori-
gins with David Hume, a Scottish philosopher.
Although the terms morals and ethics are often used According to Hume, “Reason is and ought to be
interchangeably, ethics usually refers to a standard- the slave of the passions” (Hume, 1978, p. 212).
ized code as a guide to behaviors, whereas morals Based on this idea, ethics depends on what people
usually refers to an individual’s own code for want and desire. The passions determine what is
acceptable behavior. right or wrong. However, individuals who follow
teleological theory disagree on how to decide on
Morals the “rightness” or “wrongness” of an action (Guido,
Morals arise from an individual’s conscience. They 2001) because individual passions differ.
act as a guide for individual behavior and are learned Principalism is an arising theory receiving a
through instruction and socialization. You may find, great deal of attention in the biomedical ethics
for example, that you and your patients disagree on community. This theory integrates existing ethical
the acceptability of certain behaviors, such as pre- principles and tries to resolve conflicts by relating
marital sex, drug use, or gambling. Even in your one or more of these principles to a given situation.
nursing class, you will probably encounter some dis- Ethical principles actually influence professional
agreements because each of you has developed a per- decision making more than ethical theories.
sonal code that defines acceptable behavior.
Ethical Principles
Ethics Ethical codes are based on principles that can be
Ethics is the part of philosophy that deals with the used to judge behavior. Ethical principles assist
rightness or wrongness of human behavior. It is decision making because they are a standard for
also concerned with the motives behind behaviors. measuring actions. They may be the basis for laws,
Bioethics, specifically, is the application of ethics to but they themselves are not laws. Laws are rules
issues that pertain to life and death. The implica- created by a governing body. Laws can operate
tion is that judgments can be made about the right- because the government has the power to enforce
ness or goodness of health-care practices. them. They are usually quite specific, as are the
punishments for disobeying them. Ethical princi-
Ethical Theories ples are not confined to specific behaviors.They act
Several ethical theories have emerged to justify as guides for appropriate behaviors. They also take
moral principles (Guido, 2001). Deontological theo- into account the situation in which a decision
ries take their norms and rules from the duties that must be made. Ethical principles speak to the
individuals owe each other by the goodness of the essence or fundamentals of the law rather than to