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242 UNIT III Nursing Conceptual Models

(p. 20). The condition that indicates the need for conducted philosophical inquiries to explicate the
nursing assistance is “the inability of persons to pro- metaphysical and epistemological underpinnings of
vide continuously for themselves the amount and Orem’s work. These inquiries revealed consistency
quality of required self-care because of situations of between Orem’s views regarding the nature of reality,
personal health” (Orem, 2001, p. 20). It is the proper human beings, the environment and nursing as a sci-
object or focus that determines the domain and ence; ideas and positions associated with the philoso-
boundaries of nursing, both as a field of knowledge phy of moderate realism. Taylor, Geden, Isaramalai,
and as a field of practice. The specification of the and Wongvatunyu (2000) have also explored the philo-
proper object of nursing marks the beginning of sophical foundations of the SCDNT.
Orem’s theoretical work. The efforts of Orem, work- According to the moderate realist position, there
ing independently as well as with colleagues, resulted is a world that exists independent of the thoughts of
in the development and refinement of the SCDNT. the knower. Although the nature of the world is not
Consisting of a number of conceptual elements and determined by the thoughts of the knower, it is pos-
theories that specify the relationships among these sible to obtain knowledge about the world.
concepts, the SCDNT is a general theory, “one that is Orem did not specifically address the nature of real-
descriptively explanatory of nursing in all types of ity; however, statements and phrases that she uses
practice situations” (Orem, 2001, p. 22). Originally, reflect a moderate realist position. Four categories of
three specific theories were articulated, the theory postulated entities are identified as establishing the on-
of nursing systems, the theory of self-care deficits, tology of the SCDNT (Orem, 2001, p. 141). These four
and the theory of self-care. An additional theory, the categories are (1) persons in space-time localizations,
theory of dependent care, has been articulated. This (2) attributes or properties of these persons, (3) motion
theory is regarded as being parallel with the theory or change, and (4) products brought into being.
of self-care and serves to illustrate the ongoing devel- With regard to the nature of human beings, “the
opment of the SCDNT. view of human beings as dynamic, unitary beings
In addition to her experiences in nursing practice who exist in their environments, who are in the pro-
situations, Orem was well versed in contemporary cess of becoming, and who possess free-will as well as
nursing literature and thought. Her association with other essential human qualities” is foundational to the
nurses over the years provided many learning experi- SCDNT (Banfield, 1998, p. 204). This position, which
ences, and she viewed her work with graduate students reflects the philosophy of moderate realism, can be
and her collaborative work with colleagues as valuable seen throughout Orem’s work.
endeavors. Orem cited many other nurses’ works in Orem (1997) identified “five broad views of human
terms of their contributions to nursing, including, but beings that are necessary for developing understand-
not limited to, Abdellah, Henderson, Johnson, King, ing of the conceptual constructs of the SCDNT and
Levine, Nightingale, Orlando, Peplau, Riehl, Rogers, for understanding the interpersonal and societal as-
Roy, Travelbee, and Wiedenbach. pects of nursing systems” (p. 28). These are the view
Orem’s familiarity with literature was not limited to of person, agent, user of symbols, organism,and object.
nursing literature. In her discussion of various topics The view of human beings as person reflects the
related to nursing, Orem cited authors from a number philosophical position of moderate realism; it is this
of other disciplines. The influence of scholars such position regarding the nature of human beings that is
as Allport (1955), Arnold (1960a, 1960b), Barnard foundational to Orem’s work. She made the point that
(1962), Fromm (1962), Harre (1970), Macmurray taking a particular view for some practical purpose
(1957, 1961), Maritain (1959), Parsons (1949, 1951), does not negate the position that human beings are
Plattel (1965), and Wallace (1979, 1996) can be seen in unitary beings (Orem, 1997, p. 31).
Orem’s ideas and positions. Familiarity with these The view of person-as-agent is central to the
sources helps to promote a comprehensive under- SCDNT. Self-care, which refers to those actions
standing of Orem’s work. in which a person engages for the purpose of pro-
Foundational to Orem’s SCDNT is the philosophical moting and maintaining life, health, and well-being,
system of moderate realism. Banfield (1998, 2008, 2011) is conceptualized as a form of deliberate action.