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University Hospital in Cincinnati. During this time, between nursing and anthropology, formulating
she wrote a basic psychiatric nursing text with Hofling transcultural nursing concepts, theory, principles,
entitled Basic Psychiatric Concepts in Nursing, which and practices. Her book, Nursing and Anthropology:
was published in 1960 and in 11 languages (Hofling & Two Worlds to Blend(1970), laid the foundation for
Leininger, 1960). developing transcultural nursing, the Culture Care
While in Cincinnati, Leininger discovered that the Theory, and culturally based health care. Her second
staff lacked understanding of cultural factors influenc- book, Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, Theories, and
ing the behavior of children. Among these children of Practice (1978), identified major concepts, theoretical
diverse cultural backgrounds, she observed differences ideas, and practices in transcultural nursing, the
in responses to care and psychiatric treatments that first definitive publication on transcultural nursing.
deeply concerned her. She became increasingly con- Leininger established, explicated, and used the Cul-
cerned that her nursing decisions and actions, and ture Care Theory to study many cultures in the United
those of other staff, did not appear to help these chil- States and worldwide. She developed the ethnonursing
dren adequately. Leininger posed many questions to qualitative research method to fit the theory and
herself and the staff about cultural differences among to discover the insider or emic view of cultures
children and therapy outcomes and observed that few (Leininger, 1991b, 1995c). The ethnonursing research
staff members were knowledgeable about cultural fac- method was the first nursing research method devel-
tors in the diagnosis and treatment of clients. Margaret oped for nurses to examine complex care and cultural
Mead became a visiting professor at the University of phenomena. Over 50 nurses with doctoral degrees
Cincinnati Department of Psychiatry, and Leininger and many master’s and baccalaureate students have
discussed potential interrelationships between nursing been prepared in transcultural nursing and have used
and anthropology with Mead. Although not encour- Leininger’s Culture Care Theory (Leininger, 1990a,
aged by Mead, Leininger decided to pursue doctoral 1991b; Leininger & McFarland, 2002a; Leininger &
study focused on cultural, social, and psychological Watson, 1990).
anthropology at University of Washington, Seattle. The first transcultural nursing course was offered at
As a doctoral student, Leininger studied many cul- the University of Colorado in 1966, where Leininger
tures. She found anthropology fascinating and believed was professor of nursing and anthropology (the first
it should be of interest to all nurses. She focused on the joint appointment of a professor of nursing in the
Gadsup people of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea, United States) and where she initiated and directed
where she lived with the indigenous people for 2 years the nurse scientist program (PhD). In 1969, she was
and undertook an ethnographical and ethnonursing appointed Dean and Professor of Nursing and Lecturer
study of two villages (Leininger, 1995c, 1996b). Not only in Anthropology at the University of Washington,
was she able to observe unique features of the culture, Seattle, where she established an academic nursing
she also observed a number of marked cultural differ- department for master’s and doctoral programs in
ences related to caring health and well-being practices. transcultural nursing. She initiated several transcul-
From her in-depth study and first-hand experiences tural nursing courses and guided the first nurses in a
with the Gadsup, she developed her Culture Care The- PhD program in transcultural nursing. She initiated
ory of Diversity and Universality (Culture Care The- the Committee on Nursing and Anthropology with the
ory) and the ethnonursing method (Leininger, 1978, American Anthropological Association in 1968.
1981, 1991b, 1995c). Leininger’s research and theory In 1974, Leininger was appointed Dean and Profes-
have helped nursing students understand cultural differ- sor of Nursing at the College of Nursing and Adjunct
ences in human care, health, and illness. She has been Professor of Anthropology at the University of Utah in
a major nurse leader encouraging many students and Salt Lake City. There she initiated master’s and doctoral
faculty to pursue graduate education and practice. Her programs in transcultural nursing (Leininger, 1978).
enthusiasm in developing transcultural nursing with a These programs were the first to offer substantive
human care focus sustained her for over 5 decades. courses focused specifically on transcultural nursing. In
Leininger (1970, 1978) identified several common 1981, Leininger was recruited to Wayne State University
areas of knowledge and theoretical research interests in Detroit, where she was Professor of Nursing, Adjunct