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420 UNIT IV Nursing Theories

Distinguished Research Award, the President’s Excel- successful outcomes (Leininger, 1991b, 1995c, 1996a,
lence in Teaching, and the Outstanding Graduate 1996b; Leininger & McFarland, 2002a, 2006).
Faculty Mentor Award. In 1996, Madonna University, Leininger (2002a) distinguishes between transcul-
Livonia, Michigan, honored her with the dedication of tural nursing and cross-cultural nursing. The former
the Leininger Book Collection and a Leininger Read- refers to nurses prepared in transcultural nursing who
ing Room for her outstanding contributions to nurs- are committed to develop knowledge and practice in
ing and the social sciences and humanities. transcultural nursing, whereas cross-cultural nursing
refers to nurses who apply anthropological concepts
(Leininger, 1995c; Leininger & McFarland, 2002a).
Theoretical Sources She specifies international nursing and transcultural
Leininger’s theory is derived from the disciplines of nursing as follows: international nursing focuses on
anthropology and nursing (Leininger, 1991b, 1995c; nurses functioning between two cultures; and, trans-
Leininger & McFarland, 2002b, 2006). She defined cultural nursing focuses on several cultures with a
transcultural nursing as a major area of nursing comparative theoretical and practice base (Leininger,
focused on the comparative study and analysis of 1995c; Leininger & McFarland, 2002a).
diverse cultures and subcultures in the world with Leininger describes the transcultural nurse gener-
respect to their caring values, expressions, health- alist as a nurse prepared at the baccalaureate level who
illness beliefs, and patterns of behavior. is able to apply transcultural nursing concepts, prin-
The purpose of the theory was to discover human ciples, and practices generated by transcultural nurse
care diversities and universalities in relation to world- specialists (Leininger, 1989a, 1989b, 1991c, 1995c;
view, social structure, and other dimensions cited, and Leininger & McFarland, 2002a). The transcultural
then to discover ways to provide culturally congruent nurse specialist prepared in graduate programs receives
care to people of different or similar cultures in order to in-depth preparation and mentorship in transcultural
maintain or regain their well-being or health, or to face nursing knowledge and practice. This specialist has
death in a culturally appropriate way (Leininger, 1985b, acquired competency skills through postbaccalaureate
1988b, 1988c, 1988d; as cited in 1991b). The goal of the education. “This specialist has studied selected cultures
theory is to improve and provide culturally congruent in sufficient depth (values, beliefs, and lifeways) and
care to people—care that is beneficial and useful to the is highly knowledgeable and theoretically based about
client, family, or culture group (Leininger, 1991b). care, health, and environmental factors related to
Transcultural nursing goes beyond an awareness transcultural nursing perspectives” (Leininger, 1984b,
state to that of using Culture Care nursing knowledge p. 252). The transcultural nurse specialist is an expert
to practice culturally congruent and responsible care field practitioner, teacher, researcher, and consultant
(Leininger, 1991b, 1995c). Leininger has stated that with respect to select cultures. This individual values
there will be nursing practice that reflects nursing and uses nursing theory to develop and advance
practices that are culturally defined, grounded, and knowledge within the discipline of transcultural nurs-
specific to guide nursing care provided to individuals, ing (1995c, 2001).
families, groups, and institutions. She contends that Leininger (1996b) holds and promotes a new and
because culture and care knowledge are the most different type of theory. She defines theory as the sys-
holistic means to conceptualize and understand tematic and creative discovery of knowledge about a
people, they are central to and imperative to nursing domain of interest or a phenomenon that is important
education and practice (Leininger, 1991b, 1995c; to understand or to account for some unknown phe-
Leininger & McFarland, 2002a, 2006). She states that nomenon. She believes nursing theory should take into
transcultural nursing is one of the most important, account creative discovery about individuals, families,
relevant, and highly promising areas of formal study, and groups, and their caring, values, expressions,
research, and practice because we live in a multicul- beliefs, and actions or practices based on their cultural
tural world (Leininger, 1984a, 1988a, 1995c; Leininger lifeways to provide effective, satisfying, and culturally
& McFarland, 2002a, 2006). She predicts cultural nurs- congruent care. If nursing practices fail to recognize
ing knowledge and competencies will be imperative to the cultural aspects of human needs, there will be evi-
guide all nursing decisions and actions for effective and dence of dissatisfaction with nursing services, which