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360 UNIT IV Nursing Theories

nursing,” “nursing response,” and “personhood,” and it and as a profession by Flexner’s (1910) ideas. In addi-
served as substantive and structural bases for their con- tion to the work of these thinkers, Boykin and
ceptualization of nursing as caring. Roach’s (1987, 2002) Schoenhofer are longstanding members of the com-
thesis that caring is the human mode of being finds its munity of nursing scholars whose study focuses on
natural expression and domain in the assumptions caring. Their collegial association and mutual support
of the theory. Her “6 C’s”—commitment, confidence, also undoubtedly influenced the work.
conscience, competence, compassion, and comportment— Nascent forms of the Theory of Nursing as Caring
contribute to a language of caring (Roach, 2002). were first published in 1990 and 1991, with the first
Mayeroff’s (1971) work, On Caring, provided rich, complete exposition of the theory presented at a
elemental language facilitating recognition and theory conference in 1992 (Boykin & Schoenhofer,
description of the practical meaning of living caring 1990, 1991; Schoenhofer & Boykin, 1993). These
in the ordinariness of life. Mayeroff’s (1971) major expositions were followed by Nursing as Caring:
ingredients of caring—knowing, alternating rhythms, A Model for Transforming Practice, published in
patience, honesty, trust, humility, hope, and courage— 1993 (Boykin & Schoenhofer, 1993) and re-released
describe the wellspring of human living. In the Theory with an epilogue in 2001 (Boykin & Schoenhofer,
of Nursing as Caring, these concepts are essential for 2001a). Gaut points out in Boykin and Schoenhofer
understanding living as caring, and for coming to (2001a) that the theory is an excellent example
appreciate their unique expression in the reciprocal of growth by intension, or gradual illumination,
relationship of the nurse and the nursed. characterized by “the development of an extant
Boykin and Schoenhofer’s conception of nursing bibliography, categorization of caring conceptualiza-
as a discipline was influenced directly by Phenix tions, and the further development of human care/
(1964), King and Brownell (1976), and Orem (1979), caring theories” (p. xii).

MAJOR CONCEPTS & DEFINITIONS
Focus and Intention of Nursing 1993, p. 24). Sensitivity and skill in creating unique
Disciplines of knowledge are communities of scholars and effective ways of communicating caring are devel-
who develop a particular perspective on the world and oped through the nurse’s intention to care.
what it means to be in the world (King & Brownell,
1976). Disciplinary communities hold a value system Perspective of Persons as Caring
in common that is expressed in its unique focus on The fundamental assumption is that all persons are
knowledge and practice. The focus of nursing from caring. Caring is lived by each person moment to
the perspective of the Theory of Nursing as Caring is moment and is an essential characteristic of being
that the discipline of knowledge and professional human. Caring is a process, and throughout life,
practice is nurturing persons living and growing in car- each person grows in the capacity to express caring.
ing. The general intention of nursing is to know per- Person therefore is recognized as constantly unfold-
sons as caring and to support and sustain them as they ing in caring. From the perspective of the theory,
live caring (Boykin & Schoenhofer, 2006). This inten- “fundamentally, potentially, and actually each person
tion is expressed uniquely when the nurse enters the is caring” (Boykin & Schoenhofer, 2001a, p. 2), even
relationship with the nursed with the intention of though every act of the person might not be under-
knowing the other as a caring person, and affirming stood as caring. Knowing the person as living caring
and celebrating the person as caring (Boykin & and growing in caring is foundational to the theory.
Schoenhofer, 2001a). Caring is expressed in nursing
and is “the intentional and authentic presence of the Nursing Situation
nurse with another who is recognized as living in car- Caring is service that nursing offers and lives in
ing and growing in caring” (Boykin & Schoenhofer, the context of the nursing situation (Boykin &