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CHAPTER 2 History and Philosophy of Science 19

improvement over previous conceptions (Gale, 1979). research, the scientific community does not necessarily
Verification is characterized by the scientific commu- reject it. Rather than agreeing that a problem exists with
nity’s efforts to critically analyze and test the new the theory itself, the community may make judgments
conceptions in an attempt to refute them. The new about the validity or the reliability of the measures used
views are then subjected to testing and analyses in testing the theory or about the appropriateness of the
(Gale, 1979). However, Brown (1977) argued that research design. These possibilities are considered in
discovery and verification could not be viewed as critically evaluating all attempts to test a given theory.
distinct phases, because the scientific community does Scientific consensus is necessary in three key areas
not usually accept a new conception until it has been for any given theory as follows: (1) agreement on the
subjected to significant testing. Only then can it be boundaries of the theory; that is, the phenomenon it
accepted as a new discovery. addresses and the phenomena it excludes (criterion of
In any scientific discipline, it is not appropriate to coherence), (2) agreement on the logic used in con-
judge a theory on the basis of authority, faith, or intu- structing the theory to further understanding from
ition; it should be judged on the basis of scientific a similar perspective (criterion of coherence), and
consensus (Randall, 1964). For example, if a specific (3) agreement that the theory fits the data collected
nursing theory is deemed acceptable, this judgment and analyzed through research (criterion of corre-
should not be made because a respected nursing leader spondence) (Brown, 1977; Dubin, 1978; Steiner, 1977,
advocates the theory. Personal feelings, such as “I like 1978). Essentially, consensus in these three areas
this theory” or “I don’t like this theory,” do not provide constitutes an agreement among scientists to “look at
a valid basis for judgment. The theory should be judged the same ‘things,’ to do so in the same way, and to have
acceptable on the basis of logical and conceptual or a level of confidence certified by an empirical test”
empirical grounds. The scientific community makes (Dubin, 1978, p. 13). Therefore, the theory must be
these judgments (Gale, 1979). capable of being operationalized to test it against
The advancement of science is thus a collaborative reality.
endeavor in which many researchers evaluate and Scientific inquiry in normal science involves test-
build on the work of others. Theories, procedures, ing a given theory, developing new applications of
and findings from empirical studies must be made a theory, or extending a given theory. Occasionally, a
available for critical review by scientists for evidence new theory with different assumptions is developed
to be cumulative. The same procedures can be used to that could replace previous theories. Kuhn (1962)
support or refute a given analysis or finding. A theory described this as revolutionary science and described
is accepted when scientists agree that it provides a the theory with different presuppositions as a revo-
description of reality that captures the phenomenon lutionary theory. A change in the accepted presup-
based on current research findings (Brown, 1977). positions creates a set of boundaries and procedures
The acceptance of a scientific hypothesis depends on that suggest a new set of problems or a new way to
the appraisal of the coherence of theory, which in- interpret observations (Kuhn, 1962). One previously
volves questions of logic, and the correspondence of accepted theory is abandoned for another theory if
the theory, which involves efforts to relate the theory it fails to correspond with empirical findings or if it
to observable phenomena through research (Steiner, does not present clear directions for further research.
1978). Gale (1979) labeled these criteria as epistemo- The scientific community judges the selected alterna-
logical and metaphysical concerns. tive theory to account for available data and to sug-
The consensus regarding the correspondence of gest further lines of inquiry (Brown, 1977). Hence, a
the theory is, therefore, not based on a single study. new worldview is formed.
Repeated testing is crucial. The study must be repli- In the social and behavioral sciences, there is some
cated under the same conditions, and the theoretical challenge to the assumptions underlying the accepted
assertions must be explored under different condi- methods of experimental design, measurement, and
tions or with different measures. Consensus is, there- statistical analysis that emphasizes the search for uni-
fore, based on accumulated evidence (Giere, 1979). versal laws and the use of procedures for the random
When the theory does not appear to be supported by assignment of subjects across contexts. Mishler (1979)