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CHAPTER 22 Madeleine M. Leininger 431

Present and future theories and studies in trans- oriented theory that is broad, comprehensive, and
cultural nursing are essential to meet the needs of worldwide in scope. Transcultural nursing theory ad-
culturally diverse people. The Culture Care Theory dresses nursing care from a multicultural worldview
continues to grow worldwide. Both universal and perspective. It is applicable to groups and individuals
diverse care knowledge is extremely important to who have a goal of rendering culture-specific nursing
establish a substantive body of transcultural nursing care. The research has led to a vast amount of expert
knowledge, and to make nursing a transcultural pro- knowledge largely unknown in the past. Aspects of
fession and discipline. Leininger’s theory has gained culture, care, and health are identified because they
worldwide interest and use because it is holistic, rele- have an impact on nursing. More research is needed
vant, and futuristic, and it deals with specific, yet for comparative purposes from both culture-specific
abstract, care knowledge. data and universal care knowledge. More cultural
groups need to be studied and compared to validate
Critique the caring constructs. The theory is most helpful
for the study of any culture and for comparative study
Clarity of several cultures. Findings from the theory are
The Sunrise Enabler (see Figure 22–1) and other en- being used in client care in a variety of health and
ablers mentioned earlier remain invaluable as guides community settings worldwide to transform nursing
to study and practice with people of diverse and simi- education and service. It is valued especially for de-
lar cultural needs. veloping a new and different approach to the tradi-
tional community nursing perspective.
Simplicity
Transcultural nursing theory is a broad, holistic, Accessibility
comprehensive perspective of human groups, popu- The transcultural nursing theory is researchable, and
lations, and species. The broad or generic concepts qualitative research has been the primary approach to
are well organized and defined for study in specific discover largely unknown phenomena of care and
cultures. Leininger’s Culture Care Theory is relevant health in diverse cultures. This qualitative approach
worldwide to guide nurse researchers in the concep- differs from the traditional quantitative research
tualization of research approaches to study culture. method, which renders measurement the goal of
The concepts and constructs related to social struc- research. The ethnonursing research method is ex-
ture, environment, and language are extremely tremely rigorous and linguistically exacting in nature
important and clearly defined for culturally based and outcomes. One hundred thirty-five care con-
knowledge grounded in the people’s world. Multiple structs have been identified, and more are being dis-
key concepts and interrelationships of concepts are covered each day, with a wealth of other transcultural
made explicit, especially to social structure factors. nursing knowledge. An important attribute is the ac-
Understanding the theory requires some basic curacy of grounded data derived with ethno methods
anthropological knowledge as well as considerable or from an emic or people’s viewpoint is leading to
transcultural nursing knowledge, to be used in an high credibility and confirmability, and a wealth of
accurate and scholarly fashion. When the theory has empirical data. Ongoing and future research will lead
been fully conceptualized, Leininger finds that to additional care and health findings and implications
undergraduate and graduate nursing students are for ethnonursing practices and education to fit specific
excited to use the theory and discover how practical, cultures and universal features. The qualitative criteria
relevant, and useful it is in their work. The Sunrise of credibility and confirmability from in-depth studies
Enabler (see Figure 22–1) becomes imprinted on of informants and their contexts are becoming clearly
their minds as a way of knowing. evident. Unequivocally, the body of transcultural
nursing knowledge that has been established over the
Generality past decade has had a great impact on nursing and
The transcultural nursing theory demonstrates the many health care systems (Leininger, 1995c; Leininger
criterion of generality because it is a qualitatively & McFarland 2002a, 2006).