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1950s, when virtually no nurses were prepared in identity, and demands in culturally based care,
anthropology or cultural knowledge to understand nurses are realizing the need for culturally sensi-
transcultural concepts, models, or theory. In the early tive and competent practices. Most countries and
days, most nurses had little knowledge of anthropol- communities of the world are multicultural to-
ogy and how anthropological knowledge might con- day, and so health personnel are expected to un-
tribute to human care and health behaviors, or serve derstand and respond to clients of diverse and
as background knowledge to understand nursing similar cultures. Immigrants and people from
phenomena or problems. Second, although people unfamiliar cultures expect nurses to respect and
had longstanding and inherent cultural needs, many respond to values, beliefs, lifeways, and needs. No
clients were reluctant to push health personnel longer can nurses practice unicultural nursing.
to meet their cultural needs and therefore did not
demand that their cultural and social needs be recog- As the world becomes more culturally diverse,
nized or met (Leininger, 1970, 1978, 1995c; Leininger nurses need to be prepared to provide culturally compe-
& McFarland, 2002a). Third, transcultural nursing tent care. Some nurses are experiencing culture shock,
articles submitted early for publication were rejected conflict, and clashes as they move from one area to an-
because editors did not know, value, or understand other and from rural to urban communities without
the relevance of cultural knowledge to transcultural transcultural nursing preparation. As cultural conflicts
nursing or as essential to nursing. Fourth, the concept arise, families are less satisfied with nursing and medi-
of care was of limited interest to nurses until the late cal services (Leininger, 1991b). Nurses who travel and
1970s, when Leininger began promoting the impor- seek employment internationally experience cultural
tance of nurses studying human care, obtaining back- stresses; therefore, transcultural nursing education is
ground knowledge in anthropology, and obtaining imperative for all nurses worldwide. Certification of
graduate preparation in transcultural nursing, re- transcultural nurses by the Transcultural Nursing
search, and practice. Fifth, Leininger contends that Society provides a major step toward protecting the
nursing tends to remain too ethnocentric and far too public from unsafe and culturally incompetent nursing
involved in following medicine’s interest and direc- practices (Leininger, 1991a, 2001). Accordingly, more
tions. Sixth, nursing has been slow to make substan- nurses are seeking transcultural certification to protect
tive progress in the development of a distinct body of themselves and their clients. The Journal of Transcul-
knowledge, because many nurse researchers have tural Nursing provides research reports and theoretical
been far too dependent on quantitative research perspectives of more than 100 cultures worldwide to
methods to obtain measurable outcomes rather than guide transcultural nurses in their practices.
qualitative data outcomes. The recent acceptance and
use of qualitative research methods in nursing pro- Education
vides new insights related to nursing and transcul- The inclusion of culture and comparative care in nursing
tural nursing (Leininger, 1991b, 1995c; Leininger & curricula began in 1966 at the University of Colorado,
McFarland, 2002a). There is growing interest in using where Leininger was professor of nursing and anthro-
transcultural nursing knowledge, research, and prac- pology. Awareness of the importance of Culture Care to
tice by nurses worldwide. nursing began gradually during the late 1960s, but very
Nurses are now realizing the importance of trans- few nurse educators were prepared to teach courses
cultural nursing, human care, and qualitative methods. about transcultural nursing. Since the first master’s
Leininger (personal communication, April 2002) has and doctoral programs in transcultural nursing were
stated: approved and implemented in 1977 at the University
of Utah, more nurses have been prepared specifically in
We are entering a new phase of nursing as we transcultural nursing. Today, with a heightened public
value and use transcultural nursing knowledge awareness of health care costs, different cultures, and
with a focus on human caring, health, and illness human rights, there is a greater demand for comprehen-
behaviors. With the migration of many cultural sive, holistic, and transcultural people care to protect
groups and the rise of the consumer cultural and provide quality-based care and to prevent legal suits