Page 324 - Encyclopedia of Nursing Research

MENTORING n 291

relationships for people in life and work has collegiality, and affirmation” (Vance & Olson,
been documented through anecdotal and 1998). This contemporary definition is more
research studies (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & inclusive and diverse, with no restrictions M
Lima, 2004; Ensher & Murphy, 2005; Kram, of gender, age, education, experience, edu-
1988; Noe, Greenberger, & Wang, 2002; cation, and racial-ethnic background. This
Wanberg, Welsh, & Hezlett, 2003; Zey, 1984). mentoring can be an expert-to-novice model
In particular, the complexity of a nursing or peer-to-peer model in which mentors can
career requires a substantial mentoring net- include colleagues, bosses, teachers, friends,
work to develop expertise and safe perfor- and families. The mentor relationship should
mance, to ensure professional and personal be characterized by reciprocity, as all partici-
success and satisfaction, and to promote lead- pants can both give and receive the benefits
ership development (Benner, 1984; Benner, of mentoring. “This relationship can be an
Tanner, & Chesla, 1996; Chandler, 1992; expansive resource of growth, empower-
Johnson, Cohen, & Hull, 1994). For exam- ment, and opportunity for both mentors and
ple, the presence of mentor relationships proteges” (Vance, 2011).
was identified as an important factor in the Although nurses have undoubtedly
socialization and development of expertise mentored each other since the beginning
in critical care nurses (Pyles & Stern, 1983). of modern-day nursing, the phenomenon
Mentor collegial partnerships are necessary throughout the profession is relatively new.
for students and professional nurse to learn The first documented study of mentor rela-
and refine the nursing discipline as they pro- tionships in the nursing profession was
vide clinical care, learn and teach, perform conducted by Vance (1977, 1982) with a pop-
research and scholarship, and lead the pro- ulation of nationally identified “nurse influ-
fession (Grossman, 2007; Fawcett, 2002; Olson entials.” Until that time, the word “mentor”
& Vance, 1993, 1998; Stewart & Kreuger, 1996; was not widely acknowledged in the nursing
Vance, 1997; Vance & Olson, 1998). literature, nursing research, clinical work-
The word “mentor” was introduced place, nursing programs, and professional
in the literature thousands of years ago in associations. Nurses, who are predominantly
Homer’s (1967) The Odyssey. According to this women, along with women in every field did
legend, Mentor in the disguise of Athena, the not historically experience the advantages of
Goddess of Wisdom, was appointed to serve being part of mentor networks until relatively
as guardian, teacher, advocate, and adviser to recent. Traditional mentoring was viewed as
the son of King Odysseus while he was fight- a male phenomenon in the older professions
ing the Trojan War for 10 years. Mentoring and in the business world (Collins, 1983;
has traditionally been defined as a teaching Jeruchim & Shapiro, 1992).
and support relationship between an older, Two types of support are provided in
wiser, more experienced person who guides a mentoring relationships: expert and peer-
younger and/or less experienced person (i.e., collegial. The expert mentor is someone with
protégé) during an extended period of time advanced education, knowledge, and expe-
(Johnson & Ridley, 2004). This is an expert- rience who provides assistance to protégés
to-novice model of mentoring, in which the through (1) career-focused activities (i.e.,
mentor was usually male and at least 8 to 10 guidance, coaching, networking, teaching,
years older than the protégé. More recently, feedback, and role modeling) and (2) psycho-
the mentor connection in nursing has been social activities (i.e., support, advocacy, inspi-
described as a “developmental, empower- ration, empowering, and counseling). The
ing, nurturing relationship extending over peer mentor is a colleague who can provide
time, in which mutual sharing, learning, and similar types of mentoring assistance and is
growth occur in an atmosphere of respect, a more equalitarian relationship because of